Ch 40 (continued) & Ch 41

Radiation

the emission of electromagnetic waves by all objects warmer than absolute zero.

Conduction

Direct transfer of thermal motion(heat) between molecules of objects in direct contact with each other.

Convection

The Mass movement of warmed air or liquid to or from the surface of a body or object.

Evaporation

the removal of heat energy from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules

Basal metabolic rate
the minimal number of kilocalories a resting animal requires to fuel itself for a give time.

Overview of food processing
1 Ingestion

A hetertrophic mode of nutrition in which other organisms or detritus are eaten whole or in pieces.

2 Digestion

The process of breaking down food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb

Proteins

a three dimension biological polymer constrcuted from a set of 20 different monomers called amino acids.

Amino acids

An organic molecule possesing both carboxyl and amino groups. Amino acids serve as the monomers of protiens.

Glycerol

central component of many lipids

Lipids

One family of compounds, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that are insoluble in water.

Enzymatic Hydrolysis

A catalytic decomposition of a chemical compound by reaction with water, such as the conversion of cellulosic materials into fermentable sugars by the addition of specific enzymes.

3 Absorption

The uptake of small nutrient molecules by an organism's own body

Elimination

The passing of undigested material out of the digestive compartment.

Intracellular digestion

The joining of food vacuoles and lysosomes to allow chemical digestion to occur within the cytoplasm of a cell.

Extracellular digestion

the breakdown of food outside cells.

Gastro vascular cavity

an extensive pouch that serves as the site of extracellular digestion and a passageway to disperse materials throughout most of an animal's body.

Questions:

1. Which of the following is not part of the Digestive System?

a) Absorption

b) Elimination

c) Ingestion

d) congestion

e) Digestion

2. Which of the following is a direct transfer of heat between molecules of objects in direct contact with each other?

a) Conduction

b) Evaporation

c) Convection

d) Rejection

e) Radiation

3. What is Absorption?

a) an extensive pouch that serves as the site of extracellular digestion and a passageway to disperse materials throughout most of an animal's body.

b) The uptake of small nutrient molecules by an organism's own body

c) the emission of electromagnetic waves by all objects warmer than absolute zero

d)The passing of undigested material out of the digestive compartment

e) d(^_^)z

.

.

.

.

.

q 'ɐ 'p :sɹǝʍsuɐ

Sorry guys! I forgot to post the answers!

1. b

2. a

3. d

4. b

Chapter 40: An Introduction to Animal Structure and Function

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.upei.ca/~morph/webct/Modules/Epith2/StratSquam.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.upei.ca/~morph/webct/Modules/Epith2/epith.html&usg=__VQZ71TiqhucK4i1HRiHSfw-X0Jw=&h=257&w=375&sz=27&hl=en&start=7&um=1&tbnid=PZFgv0RE3XjFEM:&tbnh=84&tbnw=122&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dsquamous%2Bepithelial%2Bcells%2Bcuboidal%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DX%26um%3D1

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.occc.edu/deanderson/dennis-tutorial/dennis-jpeg/Nervous%2520Tissue-high%2520mag%2520D-%2520copy&imgrefurl=http://www.occc.edu/deanderson/dennis-tutorial/nervous.html&usg=___3et_Mk9e4O9L09Dk98_1ZRCWRM=&h=360&w=480&sz=27&hl=en&start=32&um=1&tbnid=u5R1UIOx_gWycM:&tbnh=97&tbnw=129&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dnervous%2Btissue%26ndsp%3D20%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DN%26start%3D20%26um%3D1

anatomy: the study of an organism's structure

physiology: the study of function

Life is organized through levels of hierarchy, resulting in three main categories:

1. tissues - collections of cells with a common structure or function

2. organs- combinations of tissues

3. organ systems- combinations of organs

There are four types of tissue - epithelial tissue

connective tissue

nervous tissue

muscle tissue

Epithelial tissue

• covers outside of body
• lines tissues and organs
• tightly packed
• simple --> one layer
• stratified --> multiple layers
• functions against mechanical injury, fluid loss, invasive microorganisms
• shape at free surface squamous (flat), cubodial, or columnnar (pillarlike)

Collagenous fibers

• type of connective tissue
• made of collagen (abundant)
• nonelastic --> does not easily

fibroblasts

• common cell meshed in loose connective tissue
• secretes extracellular fibers protein

macrophage

• other most common cell found in loose connective tissue
• amoeboid cells
• engulf bacteria and cellular debris

tendon

• contains fibrous connective tissue
• attach muscles to bones

ligament

• contains fibrous connective tissue
• joins bones with joints

chondryocytes

• secretes chondroitin sulfate --> embeds cartilage in rubbery substance

*Cartilage is made of collagenous fibers.*

Osteoblast

• bone-forming cells
• deposit matrix of collagen --> calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions combine and harden = mineral hydroxyapatite
• combination makes bones harder and less brittle

Nervous tissue

• senses stimuli
• transmits electrical signals
• functional unit = neuron

Smooth muscle tissue

• lacks striations
• found in walls of digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries, and other internal organs
• spindle-shaped cells
• remain contracted longer
• control involuntary body activities (ex. stomach churning)

Skeletal muscle tissue

• attached to bones by tendons
• control voluntary body movements (ex. walking)
• striated muscle (overlapping filaments)

*The organ systems of an animal are interdependent (cooperative network)*

abdominal cavity

• primarily houses components of digestive system, excretory system, and reproductive system
• separated from thoracic cavity by diaphragm

Multiple Choice Quiz

1. Which of the following is not an organ system?

a) skeletal

b) connective

c) digestive

d) excretory

e) immune and lymphatic

2. A stratified squamous epithelium would be composed of

a) several layers of flat cells attached to a basement membrane

b) a layer of ciliated, mucus-secreting, flattened cells

c) a hierarchal arrangement of boxlike cells

d) an irregularly arranged layer of pillarlike cells

e) several layers of flat cells underneath columnar cells.

3. Which of the following is not true of connective tissue?

a) it consists of few cells surrounded by fibers in a matrix.

b) it includes diverse tissues as bone, cartilage, tendons, adipose, and loose connective tissue

c) it connects and supports other tissues.

d) it forms the internal and external lining of many organs.

e) it can have a matrix that is a liquid, gel, or solid.

4. Which of the following is the best description of smooth muscle?

a) striated, branching cells; involuntary control

b) spindle-shaped cells; involuntary control

c) spindle-shaped cells connected by intercalated disks

d) striated cells containing overlapping filaments; involuntary control

e) spindle-shaped striated cells; voluntary control

Regulating Internal Environment and REVIEW FOR UNIT 8

Organs- organized groups of tissue

•      Systems- Integumentary (skin), Muscular, Skeletal, Nervous, Endocrine, Circulatory, Respiratory, Lymphatic, Digestive, Urinary, Reproductive

Regulating the Internal Environment

• the interstitial fluid refers to the internal environment of an animal
• homeostasis is the state of internal balance (regulation); 3 components: receptor, control, and effector, receptor detects change, control center processes info and directs effector to make a proper response
• negative feedback - a change in the variable being monitored triggers a change in the control center that prevents further change in the variable or brings the variable back within wanted perimeters
• metabolic rate is defined as the amount of energy it uses in a unit of time

Regulating and Conforming

• conformer - allows internal condition to conform to external changes in the variable (like an ectotherm)
• regulator - uses internal control mechanisms to regulate internal change in the face of external fluxuation (like an endotherm)
• endothermic - warmed by heat generated by metabolism (warm blooded)
• ectothermic - doesn't produce enough body heat by metabolism to influence their body temperature (cold blooded)

UNIT 8 REVIEW QUESTIONS: EVOLUTION

1. Heterozygote advantage should be most closely linked to which of the following?

a) stabilizing selection

b) directional selection

c) disruptive selection

d) random selection

e) sexual selection

2. Each of the following has a better chance of influencing gene frequencies in small populations than in large populations, but which one most consistently requires a small population as a precondition for its occurrence?

a) genetic drift

b) gene flow

c) non-random mating

d) mutation

e) natural selection

3. "The giraffe stretched its neck while reaching for higher leaves; its offspring inherited longer necks as a result." Which statement is most likely to be helpful in correcting this student's mistake?

a) disuse of an organ may lead to its eventual disappearance

b) only favorable adaptations have survival value

c) characteristics acquired during an organism's life are generally not passed on through genes

d) overproduction of offspring leads to a struggle for survival

e) spontaneous mutations can result in the appearance of new traits

4. Charles Darwin was the first person to propose?

a) that evolution occurs

b) a way to use artificial selection as a means of domesticating plants and animals

c) that the Earth is older than a few thousand years

d) a mechanism for how evolution occurs

e) a mechanism for evolution that was supported by evidence

5. Which of the following must exist in a population before natural selection can act upon that population?

a) sexual reproduction

b) genetic variation among individuals

c) variation among individuals caused by environmental factors

d) B and C only

e) A, B, and C

answers: 1. a; 2. a; 3. c; 4. e; 5. b

End of Ch. 24/ Begin Unit 10-Ch. 40

Review of barriers:

1. Prezygotic

2.Postzygotic

Modes of Speciation:

Two main types-

Allopatric Speciation- A population forms a new species because it is Geographically Isolated from the parent population

Sympatric Speciation- Small part of population becomes a new population without being geographically separated from the parent population

Polyploid:

--> Many sets of chromosomes

If an individual is unable to interbreed with the parent population than it is no longer a part of that species

Adaptive Radiation:

Occurs when many new species arise form a common ancestor

Sympatric Speciation:

Requires the emergence of a reproductive barrier that isolates a subset of a population from the remainder of the population in the same area.

Punctuated Equilibrium:

This model states that species diverge in relatively quick spurts rather than gradually as Darwin had believed

UNIT 10

Chapter 40

Animal form and function

Anatomy- Study of the structures an organism

Physiology- Study of the functions of an organism

Tissues- Groups of cells that have a common structure AND function

4 Types of tissue:

1. Epithelial Tissue-

Occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells, covers the body and acts as a protective barrier

AKA--> Skin

2. Connective Tissue-

Mainly supports and binds other tissue. It consists of scattered cells within an extra-cellular matrix. Some connective tissue are cartilage, tendons, ligaments, bones and.... BLOOD!

3. Nervous Tissue-

This is the nerve cell or neuron. That tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals from one part of the body to other neurons, glands, muscles, and the brain.

4. Muscle Tissue-

Composed of long cells called muscle fibers. Muscle fibers contact when they are stimulated by a nerve impulse. This is the most abundant tissue in most animals. There are three types muscle tissue

1. Skeletal muscle

2. Cardiac muscle

3. Smooth Muscle

How to Prepare for the First Test!

In class on Friday 9/18 we will discuss how to write a Biology FRQ. Your tests in AP will consist of Multiple Choice questions and 1-2 FRQ's. I will grade the M.C. just like they will with the AP. We will discuss the rationale of leaving questions blank and penalty points.

Now items to ponder:

Do you know how to articulate speciation?
Do you have an example of convergent evolution?
Are you able to distinguish between the 3 modes of natural selection?
How do islands contribute to adaptive radiation?
Given a situation, can you distinguish the correct isolating mechanism?
What is natural selection?
What conditions must exist for H-W equilibrium?
Are you reviewing your vocabulary?

What are the equations used for H-W?
Do you know when to solve for q rather than q2?

Make sure that you can IDENTIFY, EXPLAIN AND PROVIDE AN EXAMPLE for any FRQ question.

Ponder these questions, which should provide you with more topics to study. Start studying this weekend as next week is hectic with Homecoming.

Let me know if I can help
Mrs. Lyon

Chapter 24 continued

There are many types of barriers that can prevent species from interbreeding; these barriers can be broken down into two types: prezygotic: those that prevent species from mating or hinder fertilization and post zygotic barriers: include those that prevent a fertilized egg from becoming a fertile adult.

Isolating mechanisms: mechanism that isolates you, no way to introduce other species or mate.

Examples of prezygotic barriers include:

1. Habitat Isolation- Two species can live in the same geographic area, but if they dont live in the same habitat they can be prevented from mating. ex. two snakes from roberts blog

2. Temporal Isolation- Species may breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years, and this can prevent them from mating. ex.Three tropical orchid species of the genus Dendrobium each flower for a single day; the flowers open at dawn and wither by nightfall.

3. Bevavioral Isolation- ex. Blue footed boobies with their foot rituals. An isolating mechanism in which two species do not mate because of differences in courtship behavior. Also known as ethological isolation

4. Mechanical Isolation- PARTS don't FIT :) ex. snails that spiral different directions.

5. Gametic Isolation- Gametes of different species may fail to attract one another and form a zygote ex. Marine animals often discharge their eggs and sperm into the surrounding water, where fertilization takes place

Postzygotic barriers: species mated and formed a zygote.

1. Reduced Hybrid viatlity- when a zygote is formed the fact that the two species are genetically incompatible may cause development to cease. Most of of the hybrids do not complete development and those that do are frail. ex. zygote might not go through all of mitosis.

2. Reduced Fertility Hybrid- Even if the two different species produce a viable offspring, reproductive isolation is still ocurring if the offspring are sterile and can't reproduce.

3. Hybrid animal- If two different species produce offspring that are viable and fertile, the hybrids may mate to produce weak or sterile offspring.

M.C:

1. Species that reproduce and form zygotes can suffer form _______ barriers to reproduction

a)prezygotic

b)postzygotic

c)fertility

d)DNA

2. Behavioral Isolation explains why _____ is important in reproduction.

a)gametes

b)habitat

c)time

d)courtship

3.Mechanical Isolation tells us that _____ potentially do not fit

a)parts

b)gametes

c)zygotes

d)clothes

1.b 2.d 3.a

Ch. 23 (cont): The Evolution of Populations

Genetic Drift- Chance events that cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next, especially in small populations.

-Two examples that can shrink populations downt to a small zie is the are known as the bottleneck effect and the founder effect.
1)The Bottleneck Effect- a sudden change in the environment (natural disaster) that may drastically reduce the size of the population. By chance alone certain alleles may establish a new population whose gene pool differs from the source population. (ex. heterozygote advantage)

2)The Founder Effect- a few individuals become isolated from a larger population, this smaller group may establish a new population whose gene pool differs from the source population.

Effects of Genetic Drift:

1. Genetic drift is significant in small populations

2. Genetic drift can cause allele frequences to change at random

3. Genetic Drift can lead to a loss of genetic cariation within populations

4. Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed

Natural Selection- differential success in survival and reproduction. It is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution.

-Natural selection can affect the frequency of a heritable trait in a population in three different ways, depending on which phenotypes in a varying population are favored. These three trends are directional, diversifying, and stabalizing selection.

• Directional Selection- occurs when conditions favor individuals exhibiting one extreme of a phenotypic range, there by shifting the frequency curve for the phenotypic character in one direction or another. (extreme)
• Disruptive Selection- occurs when conditions favor individuals at both extremes of a phenotype range over individuals with intermediate phenotypes. (bimodial)
• Stabalizing Selection- acts against both extreme phenotypes and favors intermediate variants. (intermediate)

Sexual Dimorphism- is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different sex in the same species. (ex. courship displayed in fights, color, size, body parts)

Ch. 24 The Origion of Species

What is a species?
A Latin word meaning "kind" or "appearance." - Campbell-Reece 6th Edition

Macro Evolution - Refers to the origin of a new taxonomic group
Micro Evolution - Changes over time in allele frequencies in a population
Speciation - Process by which a new species arises

There are many barriers that prevent members of different species from interbreeding. These barriers can be broken into two types:
Pre zygotic barriers - Prevent mating between species or hinder fertilization
Post zygotic barriers - Prevent fertilized egg from developing into a fertile adult

Examples

Habitat isolation: two species can live in the same geographic area, but not in the same habitat; this will prevent them from from mating

A specific case of this would be two species of garter snakes occur in the same geographic region but one lives mainly in water while the other is terrestial.





Multiple Choice

1. A species is most accurately defined as ______
a) A single population
b) Organisms with the ability to mate and produce fertile offspring
c) An organism
d) A family of organisms

2. _____ refers to origin of new taxonomic groups
a) Macro evolution
b) Origin of species
c) Evolution
d) Micro evolution

3. _____ refers to changes over time in allele frequencies in a population
a) Macro Evolution
b) Natural Selection
c) Micro Evolution
d) Speciation

Answers : 1. b; 2. a; 3. c.

Calendar Updates and disruptive selection

I have changed assignment dates on the calendar.....Please note changes!

Examples for each mode of Natural Selection:

Disruptive (bimodal) selection:
Darwin observed that the species of finches were similar enough to ostensibly have been descended from a single species. However, they exhibited disruptive variation in beak size. This variation appeared to be adaptively related to the seed size available on the respective islands (big beaks for big seeds, small beaks for small seeds). Medium beaks had difficulty retrieving small seeds and were also not tough enough for the bigger seeds, and were hence maladaptive.

Directional Selection:

Directional selection favors those individuals who have extreme variations in traits within a population. A useful example can be found in the breeding of the greyhound dog. Early breeders were interested in dog with the greatest speed. They carefully selected from a group of hounds those who ran the fastest. From their offspring, the greyhound breeders again selected those dogs who ran the fastest. By continuing this selection for those dogs who ran faster than most of the hound dog population, they gradually produced a dog who could run up to 64km/h (40mph).

Stabilizing Selection:
A good classic example of this is human birth weight. Babies of low weight lose heat more quickly and get ill from infectious A good classic example of this is human birth weight. Babies of low weight lose heat more quickly and get ill from infectious disease more easily, whereas babies of large body weight are more difficult to deliver through the pelvis. disease more easily, whereas babies of large body weight are more difficult to deliver through the pelvis.

Quiz 23.1 Key Points:

Darwin
Natural Selection
5 conditions of H-W: mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, mating
H-W calculations

Quiz 23.2 Key Points:
Modes of Natural selection

Ch:22(cont) & Ch 23

Chapter 22 (cont.)

vestigial organ- are those that are historical remnants of structures that were functional in ancestors. ex) appendix, eyes of bats

2 other types of homologies are:

embryological homologies- which are most prominent during development

molecular homologies-which occur when organisms share characteristics on the molecular level, such as using the same method for reproducing DNA and other cellular processes.

The picture shows embryos of several different animals

DNA analysis and protein comparison is the best technique for determining the phylogenetic relationship among several closely related species.

phylogenetic- system used to determine common ancestor through graphing.

Chapter 23

Individuals do not evolve.. Populations evolve!

mutation and sexual reproduction produce the genetic variation that makes evolution possible.

-genetic variation includes variation among individuals within a population in discrete and quantitative characters as well as geographic variation between populations

mutation- a change in the nucleotype sequence of an organism's DNA.

point mutation- a change of as little as one base in a gene can have a significant impact on the phenotype. ex) sickle cell anemia

Picture of sickle cell anemia point mutation.

sexual reproduction- provides the most genetic variation in a population which results from the unique combination of alleles that each individual recieves(crossing over, independent assortment, fertilization)

Hardy Weinberg equation (Lab 8)

-can be used to test whether a population is evolving.

population- a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring. Smallest unit that can evolve!

gene pool- all the alleles for all the loci in all individuals of the population. If only one allele exists for a population then that allele is said to be fixed.

The gene pool of a population that is not evolving can be described by the Hardy Weinberg principle. The principle states that the population will remain constant from generation to generation, provided that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work.

equation

(allele frequency) p + q= 1

p- dominant allele

q- recessive allele

(geneotype frequency) p^2 + 2pq + q^2=1

p^2- homozygous dominant

2pq- heterozygous

q^2- homozygous recessive

Conditions for Hardy Weinberg

If one of these conditions is NOT met then the population will evolve.

1) No mutations

2)Random mating

3)No natural selection

4) Extremely large population size

5) No gene flow (immigration, migration)

Natural Selection, Genetic drift, and gene flow can alter the frequencies of a population.

A deviation from any of the 5 conditions is a potential cause for evolution. Now mutations can alter allele frequencies, but because mutations are rare the change from generation to generation is small. Non random mating might affect frequencies of homozygous and heterozygous genotype, but typically has little effect on allele frequencies.

Allele frequency needs to shift for evolution to happen

Example of Genetic Drift:

Multiple Choice Questions

1.) What provides the most genetic variation?

a) mutation

b) point slope mutation

c) sexual reproduction

d) gene pools

2.) Which equation should be used to best describe the allele frequency?

a) a^2+b^2=c

b) p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

c) p+q = 1

d) 3a +2b = 1c

3.) Which is NOT a condition for Hardy Weinberg?

a) No mutations

b) non-random mating

c) No natural selection

d)extremely large population size

e) no gene flow

4.) _____. ______, and ________ cause most evolutionary change.

a) sexual reproduction, natural selection, and gene pool

b) natural selection, genetic drift, and mutations

c) gene flow, genetic drift, and gene pool

d) natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow

5. The allele y occurs with a frequency of .8 in a population of clams. Give the frequencies of geneotypes yy, Yy and YY.

Answers : 1. (c) 2. (c) 3.(b) 4. (d)

answer to 5:

q=.8

1-.8=p

p=.2
p^2+2pq+q^2=1

(.2)^2+2(.2)(.8)+(.8)^2=1

p^2=.04= 4%

2pq=.32=32%

q^2=.64=64%

Total=100%

Interesting Photos

Split end of Human Hair!


Hair cells in ear. Helps with mechanical movement is response to sound vibration.

Tooth Plaque! Brush Your Teeth!

Ch. 22

Observations that led to inferences by Darwin.

Homologous forelimbs: Remember DNA is necessary for structures to be homologous!

Video on Charles Darwin:

Guidelines for posting:

1. Make sure you post the notes from class.

2. Pictures are necessary to post

3. At least three multiple choice questions about the lesson or review.