Catalase Enzyme Lab Data (for Breanne)

Breanne, Christie, Meredith.

Table 1: Effect of Temperature on Catalase Reactions

Height of bubbles (cm) Radius of test tube (cm) Volume of reaction (cm3)

Temp of sol.

Hot 0 2.5 0

Room Temp 12 2.5 94.248

Cold 12.5 2.5 98.175

Table 2: Effect of pH on Catalase Reactions

Height of bubbles (cm) Radius of t.t. (cm) Vol. of reaction (cm3)

pH of sol.

Acid .5 2.5 3.927

Neutral .25 2.5 1.963

Base .5 2.5 3.927

Enzyme lab data and Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis fill-in

Meredith, Christie, and Breanne

Table 1: Effect of Temperature on Catalase Reaction

Temp. of Solution height of bubbles radius of test tube (cm) volume of rxn (cm^3)

hot N/A 2.5 0

room 12 " 94.248

cold 12.5 " 98.175

Table 2: Effect of pH on Catalase Reactions

pH of solution height of bubbles radius of test tube volume of rxn

acid 6 .5 2.5 3.927

neutral 7 .25 " 1.963

base 7 .5 " 3.927

I found this helpful animation on active and passive transport: http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/Biology1111/animations/transport1.html

LAB INFO

Effect of temp on catalase reactions:

HOT:

height of bubbles: 1.5 cm

radius of test tube: 1.25 cm

Volume of reaction: 7.363 cm3

ROOM TEMP:

height of bubbles: 12 cm

radius of test tube: 1.25 cm

volume of reaction: 58.9 cm3

COLD:

height of bubbles: 13 cm

radius of test tube: 1.25 cm

volume of reaction: 63.81 cm3

Effect of pH on catalase reactions

ACID (pH of 5):

height of bubbles: 12 cm

radius of test tube: 1.25 cm

volume of reaction: 58.9 cm3

NEUTRAL (pH of 7):

height of bubbles: 13.5 cm

radius of test tube: 1.25 cm

volume of reaction: 66.267 cm

BASE (pH of 9.5):

height of bubbles: 14.5 cm

radius of test tube: 1.25 cm

volume of reaction: 71.176 cm

Due March 30th

1. Photosynthesis and Respiration chart is due. Post your information on the blog for others.
2. Word pairings # 2 is due.
3. Lab is due. Post information on blog if necessary.
4. Open book/open note test on ch. 9 & 10.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS C3 (Class presentations)

Mollie, Julian, and Christie

Light Reactions - Photosystem II

• Molecules involved in INPUT: Light, H2O
• No major enzymes
• Molecules in OUTPUT: 2 electrons, ATP
• Main objective of this stage/process
• To provide electrons for photosynthesis
• To produce ATP once it goes down the ETC
• Elaboration
• P680 molecules (described as wavelengths that represent when they absorb the most amount of light) are certain types of chlorophyll molecules that absorb energy in this process.
• When electrons that are trapped by P680 molecules get excited, they are released.

Light Reactions - Photosystem I

• Molecules involved in INPUT: light
• Major enzymes: NADPH (a coenzyme)
• Molecules in OUTPUT: 2 electrons, NADPH (energy-rich molecule)
• Main objective of this stage/process
• To move electrons into the Calvin Cycle to complete photosynthesis
• Elaboration
• If not enough ATP is produced, the electrons will move back into Photosystem I by the cyclic cycle
• If there is enough ATP, this starts the noncyclic cycle, which moves into the Calvin Cycle

Calvin Cycle - Phase I Carbon Fixation

• Molecules involved in INPUT: 6 molecules of CO2 per cycle, energy from NADPH, energy from ATP
• No major enzymes
• Molecules in OUTPUT: glucose, ADP, NADP+
• Main objectives of this stage/process
• To produce glucose
• Elaboration
• The Calvin Cycle is a light-independent reaction. This means that it does not directly need light to perform, but light must be present in order for it to perform (light comes in through phosphorylation)

http://www.biologycorner.com/resources/photosystem.jpg

^ Photosystem I and II ^

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/media/calvin_cycle.gif

^ The Calvin Cycle ^

PROPERTIES OF WATER

Chapter 3

Remember: Polar—unequal sharing of electrons (as in an H20 molecules—oxygen is slightly negative, hydrogen is slightly positive)

Surface tension: measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid—> hydrogen bonds

http://www.societyofrobots.com/images/robot_JB_lizard1.jpg

The so-called "Jesus Lizard"

Water can moderate temperature because of its high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise or lower the temperature of a substance by 1 degree Celsius and the specific heat of water is 1 cal/g C (water has very high specific heat, so it takes more heat energy to raise the temperature of water, and more energy must be lost from water before its temperature will decrease).

It would take a huge amount of energy just to bump up the temperature of the ocean 1 degree Celsius. Water has high specific heat for this reason, because otherwise, the critters would die.

Water is also an important solvent. Review: the substance that something is dissolved in is the solvent, while the substance being dissolved is the solute. Together, they are the solution. When the solution has water as its solvent, it’s called an aqueous solution.

Substances that are water-soluble are hydrophilic substances. They are ionic compounds, polar molecules (sugars), and some proteins. Oils, however, are hydrophobic and non-polar, meaning that they do not dissolve in water.

Water is at its densest at 4 degrees Celsius.

The dissociation of water molecules

When a hydrogen atom is transferred from one water molecule to another, it leaves its electron and is transferred as a hydrogen ion, which is a proton with a charge of +1. This transfer makes the water molecule that lost its proton the hydroxide ion (OH-) and the molecule that gains the proton is the hydronium ion, H30+ (lack of it would be a base, more of it would be an acid). This dissociation of water molecules happens such that the amount of hydronium and hydroxide ions is about even in pure water. But if acids or bases are added to water, this equilibrium shifts. Water has a pH of 7, which means it’s neutral.

Buffers: substance that minimizes large sudden changes in pH.

Are combinations of H+ donors and H+ acceptor forms in solution of weak acids or bases.

Work by accepting H+ ions from solution when they are in excess and by donating H+ ions to the solution when they have been depleted.

Eg. Bicarbonate is a buffer.

Chapter 4

Carbon skeleton—Every macromolecule has a carbon skeleton.

Linear

Branch

Ring

4 macromolecules:

1. Lipids

2. Nucleic acids

3. Carbohydrates

4. Proteins

Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but with different structures and hence different properties. Isomers are a source of variation among organic molecules.

There are three types of isomers:

Structural, geometric, and enantiomers

Structural isomers are isomers that differ in the covalent arrangement of their atoms

Salem molecular formula, skeleton may change, and can differ in location of double bonds.

Eg. C—C=C instead of C=C—C

Geometric isomers are isomers that share the same covalent partnerships, but differ in their spatial arrangement.

Double bonds are inflexible.

Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other

Usually one form is biologically active and its mirror image is not.

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Hydroxyl Group

-OH and OH+ (the negative out in front is a bond sign, not a negative sign)

Carbonyl group:

Aldehyde—carbonyl is at the end off the carbon skeleton. (A for Away)

Ketone—carbonyl is in the middle or near the end of the carbon skeleton.

Carboxylic Acids:

Since this group donates protons, it has acidic properties.

Amino Group:

Characterized by nitrogen joined to atleast one alkyl group. Tends to act as a weak base.

Sulfhydrol group:

Helps stabilize the structure of protein. Disulfide bridges help stabilize tertiary structure proteins.

Organic compounds with this functional group are called thiols.

Phosphate group:

PO4 3-

Has acidic properties since it loses protons

Organic phosphates are important in cellular energy storage and transfer.

Flower Dissection Lab

Types of Flowers:

Complete- has all four floral structures (sepals, petals, stamens and pistils).
Perfect- has both sexual parts (stamens and pistils).
Regular - has petals that are all similar in size and shape as are its sepals.
Hypogenous- has ovary sets above the sepals - the ovary is superior.

In many plant species, the carpels may be fused, making several combinations possible.

The ovary may consist of one or more chambers or locules which contain one or more undeveloped seeds, the ovules. The area of the ovary wall where the ovules are attached is called the placenta. The arrangement of the placenta varies in different species.

Plants like peas have a pistil consisting of a single carpel, the placenta occurs on the ovary wall opposite the main vein. In flowers where the pistil consists of more than one fused carpel the situation is more complex.

The ovary may have only one chamber despite consisting of several fused carpels. This central placenta is known as free central placentation

Parts of a Flower Activity
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks2bitesize/science/living_things/life_cycles/play.shtml
Red Onion Lab

Osmosis in Red Onion Cells You Tube Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nHWUAdkYq4Q

Onion Cell Plasmolysis Cartoon
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab1/ex4and5.html

The cell contents of red onion cells contract in high concentrations of salt water and expand in distilled/tap water

Osmosis is a specialized case of diffusion that involves the passive transport of water. In osmosis water moves through a selectively permeable membrane from a region of its higher concentration to a region of its lower concentration. The membrane selectively allows passage of certain types of molecules while restricting the movement of others.

DNA sequencing unlocks relationships among flowering plants

The origins of flowering plants from peas to oak trees are now in clearer focus thanks to the efforts of University of Florida researchers.

A study appearing online this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences unravels 100 million years of evolution through an extensive analysis of plant genomes. It targets one of the major moments in plant evolution, when the ancestors of most of the world's flowering plants split into two major groups.

Together the two groups make up nearly 70 percent of all flowering plants and are part of a larger clade known as Pentapetalae, which means five petals. Understanding how these plants are related is a large undertaking that could help ecologists better understand which species are more vulnerable to environmental factors such as climate change.

Shortly after the two groups split apart, they simultaneously embarked upon a rapid burst of new species that lasted 5 million years. This study shows how those species are related and sheds further light on the emergence of flowering plants, an evolutionary phenomenon described by Charles Darwin as an abominable mystery.

"This paper and others show flowering plants as layer after layer of bursts of evolution," said Doug Soltis, study co-author and UF distinguished professor of biology. "Now it's falling together into two big groups."

Pentapetalae has enormous diversity and contains nearly all flowering plants. Its two major groups, superrosids and superasterids, split apart between 111 million and 98 million years ago and now account for more than 200,000 species. The superrosids include such familiar plants as hibiscus, oaks, cotton and roses. The superasterids include mint, azaleas, dogwoods and sunflowers.

Earlier studies were limited by technology and involved only four or five genes. Those studies hinted at the results found in the new study but lacked statistical support, said study co-author Pam Soltis, distinguished professor and Florida Museum of Natural History curator of molecular systematics and evolutionary genetics.

The new study at UF's Florida Museum of Natural History analyzed 86 complete plastid genome sequences from a wide range of plant species. Plastids are the plant cell component responsible for photosynthesis.

Previous genetic analyses of Pentapetalae failed to untangle the relationships among living species, suggesting that the plants diverged rapidly over 5 million years. Researchers selected genomes to sequence based on their best guess of genetic relationships from the previous sequencing work.

Genome sequencing is more time-consuming for plants than animals because plastid DNA is about 10 times larger than the mitochondrial DNA used in studying animal genomes. But continual improvements in DNA sequencing technology are now allowing researchers to analyze those larger amounts of data more quickly.

The study provides an important framework for further investigating evolutionary relationships by providing a much clearer picture of the deep divergence that led to the split within flowering plants, which then led to speciation in the two separate branches.

Eventually, researchers hope to match these evolutionary bursts with geological and climatic events in the earth's history. "I think we're starting to get to a point with a dated tree where we could start looking at what was happening at some of those time frames," Pam Soltis said.

Source : University of Florida


http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2010/02/23/dna_sequencing_unlocks_relationships_among_flowering_plants.html

water group

day 1: 271.825
day 2: 276.75
day 3:277.82

Carrots:
molarity: .6
initial: 44.03
final:38.87

molarity: .8
initial: 47.53
final: 38.86

Light Group:

D1- 263.95g

D2- 234.45g

D3- 255.38g

Carrot Data (1 mol)

Mi- 48.01g

Mf- 37.72g

Reviewww

So, I got the blog on a weird day so I'm just gonna go over transpiration. It was a large part of our last unit and going over it would be worth while.

It all begins in the root system with the root hairs that bring in water. It is soaked up through the dermal layer and is pushed through the Casparian Strip. There it gets to the Xylem where it will go up through the plant. There are two ways for it to move, either turgor pressure or cohesion. Turgor pressure is where the pressure from the incoming water by the roots is pushing the water up against gravity. This is usually happening at night when no photosynthesis and evaporation is occurring. The other, cohesion is based on hydrogen/oxygen bonds that bond together to create somewhat of a chain. From there when the stomata is opened and photosynthesis and evaporation happen the chain will be pulled up through the plant and again this is called cohesion.

Chapter 5: A Preview

Chapter 5 focuses on the function and structure of macromolecules. There are 4 types of macromolecules this chapter focuses on in particular:

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic Acids

We visited most of these when learning about the human digestive system, but now we will view them in the context of their structure and function on the molecular level rather than how they can be broken down and absorbed.

Here are some details about these building blocks of life:

Carbohydrates

Fuel and building materials. Sugars serve as fuel and carbon sources

Lipids

Versatile hydrophobic molecules. Fats allow for energy storage.

Proteins

Proteins have many structures and functions. Proteins can be made to preform almost any function.

Nucleic Acids

The biological code. Nucleic acids serve as the components of DNA

Carrot data

Control

initial: 39.95 g

final: 40.22 g

.2

initial: 37.76 g

final: 37.61 g

PLANT STRUCTURE AND GROWTH

In order to survive, plants have evolved from single-celled, aquatic, autotrophic individuals into all sorts of species on land. Some of these land plants have enclosed seeds, called angiosperms - what we are mainly focusing on.

http://image.gardening.eu/immagini/rhododendron_jacksonii_0681.jpg

Angiosperms, such as the rhododendron above, have adapted to their non-aqueous environments in order to cope with water-loss. Now, you are wondering how? Well, I am going to tell you.

A taproot is a type of root system where one main root shoots into the soil and smaller root hairs grow from it. A fibrous root is a type of root system in which many root hairs spread out into the soil, increasing maximum surface area - this surface area helps the plant to collect more water and minerals from the soil. In the water, plants didn't have to develop root systems because they were always immersed in water, and therefore, in no need of it. The first types of land plants were mosses. These mosses didn't need the intricate root systems because they grew low to the ground and near the water. While we're on the subject, let's quickly delve into vascular tissue. The enclosed area inside the endodermis is called the stele, which represents both the xylem and the phloem. The xylem is used for water transport from the roots to leaves. The phloem is used for sucrose transport up or down the stem, from sugar source to sugar sink.

Now, let's move to the portion of the flower above ground, or the shoot system. This includes the stem, the leaves, and the flower itself. In chapter 36, the vascular tissue transport is described in depth, but quickly in lay terms, water and minerals travel upward through the roots and stems, defying gravity, in order to exit from tiny pores in the leaves, a process called transpiration. In transpiration, tiny cells in the leaves, called guard cells, serve as a sort of conductor for water release. Depending on how turgid the cell is or how full it is of solute, small pores in the guard cells, called stomata, will open up in order to release water and O2 (accumulated in photosynthesis reactions). In compromise, the air will give the leaves carbon dioxide that will help increase levels of photosynthesis and sugar production. In order to restrain too much water being lost from the plant, these leaves adapt by forming a waxy cuticle.

Near the flower, stems branch off, creating a space for axillary buds. These buds are mostly dormant, lying in the crooks of branching plants, but allow for growth when needed. Buds that are more likely to grow are called terminal buds - terminal because they grow near the end or top of the plant. Terminal buds grow more easily than axillary buds because of evolutionary adaptations - the terminal buds are more easy to access by rainwater, sunlight, and pollinating buds. A phenomenon called apical dominance describes the relationship between terminal and axillary buds. Basically, according to the principle, if anything were to happen to the terminal buds, axillary buds would then break dormancy and begin their growth.

Growth in a plant has many categories. Let's start with direction. Secondary growth describes the widening of plants in growth. This is common in woody plants, such as trees - in order to obtain the stamina to survive against animals and harsh weather conditions, a tree must toughen its bark and grow outward. Primary growth describes the up-and-down growth of a plant, such as in flowering angiosperms. Take a simple flower - in order to compete with surrounding flowers for sunlight and rainwater, the flower must grow upward to obtain air particles and downward to obtain water and mineral molecules.

Alright, now let's go way inside the plant to the molecular level - I know you're dreading this, but let's rip the BandAid - it has to be done. Let's take a look at a water-dwelling plant, such as the kelp in this kelp forest:

http://www.teara.govt.nz/files/p4595doc.jpg

As you can see, back when plants were only aqueous organisms, they didn't need support to stand upright because they were swaying around in the water. Once terrestrial, the following cells helped to keep the plant standing as well as helping with basic functions. Parenchyma cells are cells that have thin primary walls. Since they don't have much bulk to help with support, these parenchyma help with basic metabolic functions and cell storage. The next level up, or collenchyma cells, are a bit more muscular than parenchyma, having thicker primary walls. Still, they are not strong enough to support a mature plant, so mostly they support a younger plant. On top are the sclerechyma cells. These cells have thick secondary walls that allow them to support a mature plant.

Okay, now moving into the vascular tissue of the plant. Let's start with xylem cells. I think of vessel elements and tracheids sort of as water slides in the xylem. Once they have matured, their insides basically die out, but their shells remain, and these shells function as container-like structures for water transport. These elongated cells allow water to be transported into the xylem and up to the leaves.

The phloem has their help from sieve-tube elements and companion cells. Here's my analogy: There is a politician who is not too bright and therefore, must require help from his subordinates who provide him with helpful ideas while the politician increases his public relations. In this scenario, the sieve tube elements represent the politician while the companion cells represent the working people. Sieve-tubes are cells that have no helpful organelles, such as nuclei or ribosomes. The companion cells, containing both of these organelles, provides the sieve-tube elements with these assets.

Now you know the basic structure of an angiosperm. Happy studying!

Regular Plant Data

*This is the data for the plants that were the constant group.

Day 1: 251.85
Day 2: 228.025
Day 3: 244.175

Carrot inital: 44.16
Carrot final: 42.7
Carrot Molarity: .4

Fan Daily Averages

Day 1: 242.68g

Day 2: 204.18g

Day 3: 184.3g

LAB INFO!!!!

ALL LAB GROUPS

1. Please post your carrot data:
Need to include your molarity, initial mass and final mass.

2. Please post your daily avg and your condition for plants:
EX:
Day 1 avg of fan:
Day 2 avg of fan:
Day 3 avg. of fan:

ALL groups need this data for the their graphs!

Plant Test Review

Asexual Reproduction:

read pages 794-797 (asexual reproduction section)

Sexual Reproduction-

- genetic diversity

- adaptions

- only a fraction of seedlings survive

VS.

Asexual Reproduction-

- requires two main female and male parts (carpel+stamen)

- produces clones

- no need for pollenators

- diversity from mutation only

Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction-

- fragmentation (separation of parent plant into parts that re-form whole plants)

- plants root system gives rise to other plants root systems

- vegetative reproduction (another name for asexual reproduction)

- very beneficial to a stable plant in a stable environment

Self Incompatibility of Asexual Reproduction (must use sexual reproduction)-

- rejection to a plants own pollen

- block growth of pollen tube from spores

- carpel taller than stamen, pollen cant fall into tube on carpel

Review for Test:

1. What is typically the result of double fertilization in angiosperms?

a. two embryos develop in every seed.

b. the endosperm develops into a diploid nutrient tissue.

c. both a diploid embryo and a triploid endosperm are formed

d. the fertilized antipodal cells develop into the seed coat.

e. a triploid zygote is formed.

2. At the conclusion of meiosis in plants the end products are always four haploid..

a. seeds

b. sperm

c. gametes

d. spores

e. eggs

3. All of the following are primary functions of the flower except..

a. egg production

b. sexual reproduction

c. pollen production

d. meiosis

e. photosynthesis

4. The ancestors of land plants were aquatic algae. Which of the following is not an evolutionary adaptation to life on land?

a. guard cells

b. c3 photosynthesis

c. root hairs

d. a waxy cuticle

e. xylem and phloem

5. What is the main force by which most of the water within the xylem vessels moves toward the top of a tree?

a. evaporation of water through stomata

b. active transport of ions in the stele

c. osmosis in the root

d. atmospheric pressure on roots

e. the force of root pressure

Answers: 1. c, 2. d, 3. e, 4. b, 5. a

Plant reproduction

photos by Meredith Moore

38.2: Plants reproduce sexually, asexually, or both

• many angiosperm species reproduce both asexually and sexually
• sexual reproduction results in offspring that are genetically different from their parents --> diversity!
• asexual reproduction results in a clone of genetically identical organisms --> good if environment is favorable
• stamen = filament + anther
• carpel = stigma + style
• asexual reproduction does not need pollinates because of clone ---> pollination takes on a different meaning (like what? comment)

Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction

• fragmentation, separation of a parent plant into parts that develop into whole plants, is a very common type of asexual reproduction
• in some species, a parent plant's root system gives rise to adventitious shoots that become separate shoot systems
• Ex: Aspen trees clones, all connected with root systems and if one dies the others die. All "rooted" in vascular mechanisms

Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual versus Sexual Reproduction

• asexual reproduction is also vegetative reproduction
• asexual reproduction can be beneficial to a successful plant in a stable environment
• however, a clone of plants is vulnerable to local extinction if there is an environmental change
• sexual reproduction generates genetic variation that makes evolutionary adaptation possible
• however, only a fraction of seedlings survive

Self-incompatibility

• the most common type is self-incompatibility, a plant's ability to reject its own pollen
• researchers are unraveling the molecular mechanisms involved in self-incompatibility
• some plants reject pollen that has an s-gene matching an allele in the stigma cells
• recognition of self pollen triggers a signal transduction pathway leading to a lock in growth of a pollen tube

*REVIEW*

• functioning xylem tissue, both vessel members and tracheids, consists only of cell walls.
• the cork cambium procudes the cork of woody plants.
• transpiration is the driving force for the cohesion-tension mechanism responsible for the movement of water through xylem. Capillary action and rot pressure contribute little, if at all, to water movement. Carbohydrate utilization and plasmosdesmata refer to the movment of sugars through phloem.
• The Casparian strip prevents water and minerals from entering the stele through the apoplast.
• passage through selective channels, aided by the membrane potential created by proton pumps, facilitates the movement of k + into epidermal cells of the root.

Double Fertilization

http://www.biologyjunction.com/images/doublefertilazation.jpg

• Occurs Mostly in Angiosperms
• pollen tube contains two haploid (1n) sperm
• one sperm fuses with or fertilizes an egg to produce a diploid (2n) zygote which becomes the seed
• The second sperm fuses with two, usually haploid, polar nuclei to form a triploid (3n) nucleus which becomes the endosperm

Biology Notes February 2, 2010

Evolution of Plants:

Unicellular multicellular multicellular Fern

autotrophic ----> aquatic ----> terrestrial -----> vascular

aquatic autotrophic Moss gymnosperms/angiosperms

• Many angiosperms reproduce sexually and asexually. (Flowers have both parts) Example: lily



• Diploid (2n) sporophytes produces spores by meiosis; these grow into haploid (n) gametophytes.



• Gametophytes produce haploid (n) gametes by mitosis; fertilization of gametes prodices a sporophyte.



• In angiosperms, the sporophyte is the dominant generations, the large plant that we see.



• Tropisms: phototropism = seed plant will grow toward light and gravitropism = if a seed plant seed is planted upside down it will still grow the corect way due to gravity.



• Flowers consist of 4 floral organs: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels.



• A stamen (male) consists of a filament topped by an anther with pollen sacs that produce pollen (male).



• A carpel has a long style with a stigma on which pollen may land.



• At the base of the style is an ovary containing one or more ovules.



• A single carpel or group of fused carpels is called a pistol.



• Complete flower contains all 4 floral organs.



• Incomplete flowers lack 1 or more floral organs, for example: stamens or carpels.



• Double Fertilization results from the discharge of 2 sperm from the pollen tube into the embryo sac.



• One sperm fertilizes the egg, and the other combines with the polar nuclei; giving rise to the triploid (3n) food storing endosperm.



• After double fertilization, each ovule developes in to a seed.



• The ovary developes into the fruit enclosing the seeds.



• Angiosperm = closed seed



• A fruit developes from an ovary.



• It protects the enclosed seeds and aids in seed dispersal by wind or animals.



• A fruit maybe classified as dry, if the ovary dries out at maturity, or fleshy, if the ovary becomes thich, soft, and sweet at maturity.

http://croptechnology.unl.edu/animationOut.cgi?anim_name=water_movement_roots.swf

This is a super Casparian Strip Animation !!!!!!!!!!!

January 24, 2010

• Mycrorrhizae are roots associated with symbiotic fungi. These absorb water and minerals in the root cortex must pass through the endodermis in order to enter the rest of the plant. Endodermis surrounds the stele
• The endodermis contains the Casparian Strip which prevents substances from going around the cells. Water and minerals must therefore pass through an endodermal cell to enter the vascular tissue

Turgor/Root Pressure- water and minerals forcing in the strip to reach vascular tissue

• Transpiration- is the loss of water vapor from leaves and other parts of the plant in contact with air
• Two ways substances pulled through plant

1. Root Pressure occurs when water flowing in from the root cortex generates a

positive pressure that forces fluid up through the xylemà positive pressure

2. Transpiration- Cohesion- Tension Mechanism- water is lost through transpiration at the leaves of the plat, and this creates a negative pressure, which draws water up through the plant. The cohesion of water due to hydrogen ions bonding (groups of 4) enables it to form a column, which is drawn up through the xylem with the help of adhesion (the fact that water molecules are attracted to the plant cell walls

• Guard cells control size of the opening in the stomata by changing shape and this regulates plant water intake
• increase size by taking up water thus swelling and sealing off the stomata opening
• influence stomata opening and closing

1. Light

2. Depletion of carbon dioxide in air spaces in leaf

3. Internal clock of guard cells

• Phloem transports organic products of photosynthesis from the leaves throughout the plant
• Sieve tubes carry food from a sugar source (leaf) to a sugar sink (all organs)
• Flow through the phloem occurs mainly as a result of bulk flow-loading sugar into cells create a high solute concentration at the source end of the sieve tube, and this lowers the water potential and causes the water to flow in the tube
• Roots can be a source in fallà summer
• Leaves can be a source in summerà fall

Glogster

Chapter 35

Plant Structure and Growth





Vascular system and plants

The three basic plant organs are roots, stems and leaves
They are organized into a root system and a shoot system

Roots rely on sugar produced by photosynthesis in the shoot system. Shoots rely on water.
Roots are multicellular organs with important functions

• anchor the plant, absorb minerals and water, and store organing nutrients.

A taproot system consists of one main vertical root that gives rise to lateral roots, or branched roots.

A stem is an alternating system of nodes. Each node contains internodes, which are stem segments between the nodes.

An axillary bud is a structure that has the potential to form a lateral shoot or branch.

An apical bud, or terminal bud, is located near the shoot tip and causes elongation of a young shoot.

• apical dominance helpts to maintain dormancy in most nonapical buds.

The leaf is the maing photosynthetic organ of most vascular plants.

• a leaf generally consists of a flattened blade and a stalk called the petiole, which joins the leaf to a node of the stem
  

passage way - vessels, vascular tissue
- xylem and phloem


Alteration of Generations






















Xylem Phloem
trachied (pit) steive tube
vessel element companion cell

Chapter 35 Preview

Ch 35 Overview:

A rather large new vocabulary is needed to name the specialized cells and structures in a study of plant structure and growth. the roots, stems, and leaves of a plant are specialized to function in absorption, support, transport, protection, and photosynthesis. Plants exhibit indeterminate growth. Apical meristems at the tips of roots and shoots create primary growth, the primary meristems produce dermal, ground, and vascular tissues. The lateral meristems, vascular cambium, and cork cambium, create secondary growth that adds girth to stems and roots. New techniques and model systems such as arabidopsis are allowing researchers to explore the molecular bases for plant growth, morphogenesis and cellular differentiation

The Plant Body

-Both genes and environment affect plant structure (720-721)

-Plants have three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves. (721-724)

-Root System & the Shoot System and Leaves

-Plant organs are composed of 3 tissue systems: Dermal, Vascular, Ground (724-726)

-Plant tissues are composed of 3 basic cell types: Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerchyma(726-728)

The Process of Plant Growth and Development

-Meristems generate cells for new organs throughout the lifetime of plant. (729-730)

-Primary growth: apical meristems extend roots and shoots by giving rise to the primary plant body(730-734)

-Secondary Growth: Lateral meristems add girth by producing secondary vascular tissue and periderm (734-738)

Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Development

-Molecular biology is revolutionizing the study of plants (738-739)

-Growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation produce the plant body (739)

-Growth involves both cell division and cell expansion (739-742)

-Morphogenesis depends on pattern formation (742)

- Cellular differentiation depends on the control of gene expression (743)

-Clonal analysis of the shoot apex emphasizes the importance of a cell's location in its development fate (743-744)

-Phase changes mark major shifts in development(744)

-Genes controlling transcription play key roles in a meristem's change from a vegetative to a floral phase (744-745)

Chapter 35 Vocabulary

apic- the tip

bienn- every two years

root system

shoot system

coll- glue

fibrous root

taproot

root hairs

fusi- a spindle

axillary bud

Terminal bud

perenni- through the year

apical dominance

phloe- the bark of the tree

cuticle

tracheids

vessel elements

pits

sieve-tube members

companion cell

ground tissue

pith

parenchyma cell

collenchyma cell

sclerenchyma cell

sclerids

sclero- hard

meristem

primary growth

secondary growth

zone of elongation

stele

trachei- the windpipe

vascula- a little vessel

vascular bundles

guard cell

cork cambium

xyl- wood

bark

Ecology Continued

Niches
Fundamental Niche - Space and resources a species population would consume with no limiting factors
Realized Niche - space and resources a species population occupies when factors such as competition and limited resources are accounted for

When a species is introduced into an environment it starts in its fundamental niche, but as competition for resources increases, they can be forced into its realized niche


Smybiosis - two species that live together in benefit
Coloration - Species often use bright colors to deter predators from consuming them. Many who employ this are poisonous or extremely bad tasting

Mullerian Mimicry - Several species may have same colors, so it easy for predators to associate these colors or patterns with a "no go" on consuming

Batesian Mimicry - Look like the poisonous species to deter predators

Succession
As succession progresses, species diversity and biomass increase. Eventually, a final successful stage of constant species composition, called the climax community. Often a natural disaster will occur, causing the cycle to repeat.

Sorry for the delay, this should have been posted prior to Daniel's last post.

ECOLOGY:
There are four major factors of ecology
1. Sucession
2.Limiting Factors
3. Carrying Capacity
4. Trophic Levels

Ecology --> Study of the distibution and abundance of organisms, their interactions with other organisms, and their interactions with their environment.
- The niche of an organism describes the biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) resources in the environment used by an organism.

Population Ecology:
1.Size of population
2.Density of a population
3.Dispersion, how population is distributed
-clumped
-random
-uniformed
4.Age structure...description of the abundance of individuals of each age.
5.Surviviorship curve...mortality of individuals in a species varies during their lifetime.

Biotic Potential:
Maximum growth rate of a population under ideal conditions
-unlimited resources
-no growth restrictions
Contributions to biotic potential (what to look at)
-age at reproductive maturity
-clutch size
-frequency of reproduction
-reproductive lifetime
-survivorship of offspring to reproductive maturity

Limiting Factors:
Elements that prevent a population from attaining biotic potential
Density dependent factors are those agents who's limiting effect becomes more intense as population density increases
If too dense...
-parasites
-disease
-competition for resources
-toxic effect of waste product
-predation

Independent Factors:
Fires
Hurricanes

Growth of Population:

r = (births - deaths) / N
If deaths = Births than everything is constant.
D > B = - growth rate
B > D = + growth rate

Ecology Day Two

Ecology

Gout-all the things that are wrong with people.

· As density goes up so does limiting factors. Disease is not a limiting factor yet. Flu shots- dead virus, how to predict that it’s the one we use. They don’t know for sure. It comes from China. The population is so dense they get the flu first. We make a flu shot for the Northern hemisphere. Their summer is our winter.

· Ecologists look at the limiting factor.

· Delta N/delta t =rN(K-N/K) logistic growth. S curves start as exponential, stable off then, if it dips then limiting factors have taken affect.

Types of growth- exponential, logistic,

Population cycles are fluctuations in populations size in response to varying effects of limiting factors. Since many limiting factors are density dependent they will have a greater affect when the population size is greater compared to when it is small.

Instead of limiting the cockroaches, whipping them all out then allowing them to thrive.

K-selected species- is one whose population size remains constant at the carrying capacity, K. Species of this type such as humans, produces a small number umber of relatively large offspring that require parental care until they nature. Reproduction occurs repeatedly during their lifetime.

S curve characters, K-selected species are not the ones to come in stabilize they come in second, they come in to an established community. They have small clutch sizes. They need time to mature and parental care. They hover at the carrying capacity. They stabilize the population. A lot older reproductive maturity, takes them years to reproduce. Old reproductive age, small clutch size, years in frequency reproduction, old reproductive lifetime, long survivorship of offspring to reproduce maturity.

R curve- Rapid reproductive maturity set the exponential curve. Large clutch size. They have young reproductive age, large clutch size, short in frequency reproduction, young reproductive lifetime, short survivorship of offspring to reproduce maturity.

Reduction in disease, Advances in medicine, such as the discoveries of antibiotics, vaccines, proper hygiene, reduced the death rate and increased the birth rate.

Reduction of wastes water purification and sewage systems, health hazards from human wastes were reduced. Increased waste collected more exponential population growth. Expansion of habitat- better housing warmer clothing, easy access to energy for heating, cooling, and cooking, for example, allowed humans to occupy environments that were previously unsuitable.

Community Ecology- is concerned with the interaction of populations. Interspecific competitions (between different species), the following concepts are how the competition is resolved: Intra- same species.

The competitive exclusion principle (Gause’s Principle), When two species compete for exactly the same resource or they occupy the same niche and they both need the smaller seed, one is more likely to be successful, One species outcompetes the other and eventually the second species is eliminated.

The other goes and finds another niche. If they are smart enough tto do that.

Resource partitioning: Some species cexist in spite of the apparent competiton for the same resources. They occupy different niches. By pursuing slightly differently resources or securing their resources in slightly diffecrnt ways, individuals, minimize competions and maximize success. Dividing up the resources in this manner is called resource partioning.

Harter displacement (niche shift) As a result of resource partitioning , certain characteristics may enable individuals to obtain resources in their partitions more successfully. Selection for these characteristics or characters reduces competition with individuals in other partitions and leads to a divergence of features, or character displacement.